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Technical Studies and Report for UFORE

The science behind UFORE has been well documented; it is available in the Methods section. A selection of important studies is offered here to help the user gain access to this literature.

Nowak, D.J., K.L. Civerolo, S.T. Rao, G. Sistla, C.J. Luley, and D.E. Crane. 2000. A modeling study of the impact of urban trees on ozone. Atmos. Environ. 34: 1601-1613.

Nowak, D.J., and D.E. Crane. 2000. The Urban Forest Effects (UFORE) Model: quantifying urban forest structure and functions. In: Hansen, M. and T. Burk (Eds.) Integrated Tools for Natural Resources Inventories in the 21st Century. Proc. Of the IUFRO Conference. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report NC-212. North Central Research Station, St. Paul, MN. pp. 714-720.

Nowak, D.J. and D.E. Crane. 2002. Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the United States. Environ. Poll. 116(3): 381-389.

Nowak, David J.; Crane, Daniel E.; Walton, Jeffrey T.; Twardus, Daniel B.; Dwyer, John F. 2003. Understanding and quantifying urban forest structure, functions and value. In: Kenney, W.A.; McKay, J.; van Wassenaer, P., eds. Urban forest planning: sustainable forests for healthy communities: Proceedings of the 5th Canadian urban forest conference; 2002 October 7-9; Markham, Ontario. Ottawa, Ontario: Tree Canada Foundation.

Nowak, D.J., D.E. Crane, J.C. Stevens, and M. Ibarra. 2002. Brooklyn’s Urban Forest. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. 290. 107 p.

Nowak, D.J., D.E. Crane, and J.F. Dwyer. 2002. Compensatory value of urban trees in the United States. J. Arboric. 28(4): 194-199.

Nowak, D.J. and J.F. Dwyer. 2002. Urban forest structure and value at the national scale. Proc. of the National Urban Forest Conference. Washington, DC. p. 24-25.

Nowak, D.J. and J.F. Dwyer. 2002. Assessing the value of urban forests in the United States. In: 2001 Society of American Foresters National Conference Proceedings. Denver, CO. p. 237-241.

Nowak, D.J., P.J. McHale, M. Ibarra, D. Crane, J. Stevens, and C. Luley. 1998. Modeling the effects of urban vegetation on air pollution. In: Gryning, S.E. and N. Chaumerliac (eds.) Air Pollution Modeling and Its Application XII. Plenum Press, New York. pp. 399-407.

Nowak, D.J. and P. O’Connor. 2001. Syracuse urban forest master plan: guiding the city’s forest resource in the 21st century. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report. 50 p.

Nowak, D.J., J. Pasek, R. Sequeira, D.E. Crane, and V. Mastro. 2001. Potential effect of Anoplophora glabripennis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) on urban trees in the United States. J. Econon. Entomol. 94(1): 16-22.

Technical Research Papers on related topics

Results of research projects that are related to UFORE may also be of interest to users of UFORE. A selection of the literature on related topics or used within UFORE is given below.

Akbari, H.; Huang, J.; Martien, P.; Rainier, L.; Rosenfeld, A.; Taha, H. 1988. The impact of summer heat islands on cooling energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Proc. 1988 Summer Study in Energy Efficiency in Buildings. Washington, DC: American Council for an Energy‑Efficient Economy.

Barbour, M.G; Burk, J.H.; Pitts, W.D. 1980. Terrestrial plant ecology. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings. 604 p.

Baldocchi, D. 1988. A multi-layer model for estimating sulfur dioxide deposition to a deciduous oak forest canopy. Atmospheric Environment. 22: 869-884.

Baldocchi, D.D.; Hicks, B.B.; Camara, P. 1987. A canopy stomatal resistance model for gaseous deposition to vegetated surfaces. Atmospheric Environment. 21: 91-101.

Benjamin, M.T.; Sudol, M.; Bloch, L.; Winer, A.M. 1996. Low-emitting urban forests: a taxonomic methodology for assigning isoprene and monoterpene emission rates. Atmospheric Environment. 30(9): 1437-1452.

Bidwell, R.G.S.; Fraser, D.E. 1972. Carbon monoxide uptake and metabolism by leaves. Canadian Journal of Botany. 50: 1435-1439.

Birdsey, R.A. 1996. Carbon storage for major forest types and regions in the conterminous United States. In: Sampson, R.L.; Hair, D., eds. Forest and global change, volume 2: forest management opportunities for mitigating carbon emissions. Washington, DC: American Forests: 1-26.

Brasseur, G.P.; Chatfield, R.B. 1991. The fate of biogenic trace gases in the atmosphere. In: Sharkey, T.D.; Holland, E.A.; Mooney, H.A., eds. Trace gas emissions by plants. New York: Academic Press: 1-27.

Bytnerowicz, A.; Fenn, M.E.; Miller, P.R.; Arbaugh, M.J. 1999. Wet and dry deposition to the mixed conifer forest. In: Miller, P.R.; McBride, J.R., eds. Oxidant air pollution impacts in the Montane Forests of Southern California: a case study of the San Bernardino Mountains. New York: Springer-Verlag: 235-269.

Cairns, M.A.; Brown, S.; Helmer, E.H.; Baumgardner, G.A. 1997. Root biomass allocation in the world’s upland forests. Oecologia. 111: 1-11.

Cardelino, C.A.; Chameides, W.L. 1990. Natural hydrocarbons, urbanization, and urban ozone. Journal of Geophysical Research. 95(D9): 13,971‑13,979.

Carter, W.L. 1994. Development of ozone reactivity scales for volatile organic compounds. Journal of Air & Waste Management Assoc. 44: 881-899.

Carter, W.L. 1998. Updated maximum incremental reactivity scale for regulatory applications.

Cronn, D.R.; Nutmagul, W. 1982. Analysis of atmospheric hydrocarbons during winter MONEX. Tellus. 34: 159-165.

Colbeck, I.; Harrison, R.M. 1985. Dry deposition of ozone: some measurements of deposition velocity and of vertical profiles to 100 metres. Atmospheric Environment. 19(11): 1807-1818.

Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers. 1992. Guide for plant appraisal. Savoy, IL: International Society of Arboriculture. 103 p.

deVries, R.E. 1987. A preliminary investigation of the growth and longevity of trees in Central Park. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University 95 p. M.S. thesis.

Dwyer, J.F.; McPherson, E.G.; Schroeder, H.W.; Rowntree, R.A. 1992. Assessing the benefits and costs of the urban forest. Journal of Arboriculture. 18(5): 227‑234.

Energy Information Administration. 2002a. 1990-2001 Estimated Electric Utility Monthly Average Revenue per Kilowatthour for Residential Sector by State (cents per kilowatthour).

Energy Information Administration. 2002b. Consumer price estimates for energy, 1970-1997.

Evans, R.C.; Tingey, D.T.; Gumpertz, M.L.; Burns, W.F. 1982. Estimates of isoprene and monoterpene emission rates in plants. Bot. Gaz. 143(3):304-310.

Fankhauser, S. 1994. The social costs of greenhouse gas emissions: an expected value approach. The Energy Journal. 15(2): 157-184.

Fleming, L.E. 1988. Growth estimation of street trees in central New Jersey. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University. 143 p. M.S. thesis.

Frelich, L.E. 1992. Predicting dimensional relationships for Twin Cities shade trees. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Department of Forest Resources. 33 p.

Geron, C.D.; Guenther, A.B.; Pierce, T.E. 1994. An improved model for estimating emissions of volatile organic compounds from forests in the eastern United States. Journal of Geophysical Research. 99(D6): 12,773-12,791.

Graedel, T.E.; Crutzen, P.J. 1989. The changing atmosphere. Scientific American. 261(3): 58-68.

Graham, R.L.; Wright, L.L.; Turhollow, A.F. 1992. The potential for short-rotation woody crops to reduce U.S. CO2 emissions. Climatic Change. 22: 223-238.

Guenther, A. 1997. Seasonal and spatial variation in natural volatile organic compound emissions. Ecological Applications. 7(1): 34-45.

Guenther, A.; Geron, G.; Pierce, T.; Lamb, B.; Harley, P.; Fall, R. 1998. Natural emissions of non-methane organic compounds, carbon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen in North America.

Guenther, A.; Hewitt, C.N.; Erickson, D.; Fall, R.; Geron, C.; Graedel, T.; Harley, P.; Klinger, L.; Lerdau, M.; McKay, W.A.; Pierce, T.; Scholes, B.; Steinbrecher, R.; Tallamraju, R.; Taylor, J.; Zimmerman, P. 1995. A global model of natural volatile organic compound emissions. Journal of Geophysical Research. 100 (D5): 8873-8892.

Haack, R.A.; Law, K.R.; Mastro, V.C.; Ossenbruggen, H.S.; Raimo, B.J. 1997. New York’s battle with the Asian long-horned beetle. Journal of Forestry. 95(12): 11-15.

Hamburg, S.P.; Harris, N.; Jaeger, J.; Karl, T.R.; McFarland, M.; Mitchell, J.F.B.; Oppenheimer, M.; Santer, S.; Schneider, S.; Trenberth, K.E.; Wigley, T.M.L. 1997. Common questions about climate change. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme, World Meteorology Organization. 24 p.

Heisler, G.M. 1986. Energy savings with trees. Journal of Arboriculture. 12(5): 113‑125.

Hosker, R.P., Jr.; Lindberg, S.E. 1982. Review: atmospheric deposition and plant assimilation of gases and particles. Atmospheric Environment. 16(5): 889-910.

International Society of Arboriculture. 1988. Valuation of landscape trees, shrubs, and other plants. Champaign, IL: International Society of Arboriculture. 50 p.

Kinnee, E.; Geron, C.; Pierce, T. 1997. United States land use inventory for estimating biogenic ozone precursor emissions. Ecological Applications. 7(1): 46-58.

Kramer, P.J.; Kozlowski, T.T. 1979. Physiology of woody plants. New York: Academic Press. 811 p.

Liebhold, A.M.; Gottschalk, K.W.; Muzika, R.; Montgomery, M.E.; Young, R.; O’Day, K.; Kelley, B. 1995. Suitability of North American tree species to the gypsy moth: a summary of field and laboratory tests. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-211. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 34 p.

Lovett, G.M. 1994. Atmospheric deposition of nutrients and pollutants in North America: an ecological perspective. Ecological Applications. 4: 629-650.

Maxwell, E.L. 1994. A meteorological/statistical solar radiation model. In: Proceedings of the 1994 annual conference of the American Solar Energy Society. San Jose, CA: American Solar Energy Society: 421-426.

McPherson, E.G. 1994. Energy-saving potential of trees in Chicago. In: McPherson, E.G.; Nowak, D.J.; Rowntree, R.A., eds. Chicago's urban forest ecosystem: results of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-186. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 95-113.

McPherson, E.G.; Nowak, D.J.; Sacamano, P.L.; Prichard, S.E.; Makra, E.M. 1993. Chicago’s evolving urban forest: initial report of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-169. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 55 p.

McPherson, E.G. ;Simpson, J.R.. 1999. Carbon dioxide reduction through urban forestry: Guidelines for professional and volunteer tree planters. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-171. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 237 p.

Monteith, J.L.; Unsworth, M.H. 1990. Principles of environmental physics. New York: Edward Arnold. 291 p.

Murray, F.J.; Marsh, L.; Bradford, P.A. 1994. New York State energy plan, vol. II: issue reports. Albany, NY: New York State Energy Office.

National Research Council. 1991. Rethinking the ozone problem in urban and regional air pollution. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 500 p.

Nowak, D.J. 1993. Atmospheric carbon reduction by urban trees. Journal of Environmental Management 37: 207-217.

Nowak, D.J. 1994a. Understanding the structure of urban forests. Journal of Forestry 92(10): 42-46.

Nowak, D.J. 1994b. Atmospheric carbon dioxide reduction by Chicago’s urban forest. In: McPherson, E.G.; Nowak, D.J.; Rowntree, R.A., eds. Chicago's urban forest ecosystem: results of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-186. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 83-94.

Nowak, D.J. 1994c. Air pollution removal by Chicago's urban forest. In: McPherson, E.G.; Nowak, D.J.; Rowntree, R.A., eds. Chicago's urban forest ecosystem: results of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-186, Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 63‑81.

Nowak, D.J. 1995. Trees pollute? A “TREE” explains it all. In: Kollin, C.; Barratt, M., eds. In: Proceedings of the national urban forestry conference. Washington, DC: American Forests: 28-30.

Nowak, D.J. 1996. Estimating leaf area and leaf biomass of open-grown deciduous urban trees. Forest Science. 42(4): 504-507.

Nowak, D.J. 2000. The interactions between urban forests and global climate change. In: Abdollahi, K.; Ning, Z.H.; Appeaning, V.A., eds. Global climate change and the urban forest. Baton Rouge, LA: GCRCC and Franklin Press. p. 31-44

Nowak, D.J.; Civerolo, K.L.; Rao, S.T.; Sistla, G.; Luley, C.J.; Crane, D.E. 2000. A modeling study of the impact of urban trees on ozone. Atmospheric Environment. 34: 1601-1613.

Nowak, D.J.; Crane, D.E. 2000. The Urban Forest Effects (UFORE) Model: quantifying urban forest structure and functions. In: Hansen, M.; Burk, T., eds. Integrated tools for natural resources inventories in the 21st century: proceedings of the IUFRO conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-212, St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 714-720.

Nowak, D.J.; Dwyer, J.F. 2000. Understanding the benefits and costs of urban forest ecosystems. In: Kuser, J., ed. Handbook of urban and community forestry in the Northeast. New York: Plenum Publishers: 11-25.

Nowak, D.J.; McHale, P.J.; Ibarra, M.; Crane, D.; Stevens, J.; Luley, C. 1998. Modeling the effects of urban vegetation on air pollution. In: Gryning, S.E.; Chaumerliac, N., eds. Air pollution modeling and its application XII. New York: Plenum Press: 399-407.

Nowak, D.J.; Pasek, J.E.; Sequeira, R.A.; Crane, D.E.; Mastro, V.C. 2001. Potential effect of Anoplophora glabripennis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) on urban trees in the United States. Journal of Economic Entomology. 94(1):116-122.    

Nowak, D.J.; Rowntree, R.A. 1990. History and range of Norway maple. Journal of Arboriculture. 16(11): 291-296.

Nowak, D.J.; Rowntree, R.A.; McPherson, E.G.; Sisinni, S.M.; Kerkmann, E.; Stevens, J.C. 1996. Measuring and analyzing urban tree cover. Landscape and Urban Planning. 36: 49-57.

Nowak, D.J., Stevens, J.C., Sisinni, S.M., Luley, C.J. 2002. Effects of urban tree management and species selection on atmospheric carbon dioxide. Journal of Arboriculture. 28(3): 113-122.

Onstad, D.W.; Nowak, D.J.; Jeffords, M.R. 1997. Potential defoliation of trees by outbreak populations of gypsy moth in the Chicago area. Journal of Arboriculture. 23(2): 57-64.

Panofsky, H.A.; Dutton, J.A. 1984. Atmospheric turbulence. New York: John Wiley. 397 p.

Scott, K.I.; Simpson, J.R.; McPherson, E.G. 1999. Effects of tree cover on parking lot microclimate and vehicle emissions. Journal of Arboriculture. 25(3): 129-142.

Seinfeld, J.H. 1986. Air pollution. New York: John Wiley. 738 p.

Sharkey, T.D.; Singsaas, E.L. 1995. Why plants emit isoprene. Nature. 374(27 April): 769.

Smith, F.W.; Sampson, D.A.; Long, J.N. 1991. Comparison of leaf area index estimates from allometrics and measured light interception. Forest Science. 37(6): 1682-1688.

Smith, W.H. 1990. Air pollution and forests. New York: Springer‑Verlag. 618 p.

Taha, H. 1996. Modeling impacts of increased urban vegetation on ozone air quality in the South Coast Air Basin. Atmospheric Environment. 30(20): 3,423-3,430.

Tingey, D.T.; Turner, D.P.; Weber, J.A. 1991. Factors controlling the emissions of monoterpenes and other volatile organic compounds. In: Sharkey, T.D.; Holland, E.A.; Mooney, H.A., eds. Trace gas emissions by plants. New York: Academic Press: 93-119.

U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. 1997. Emissions of greenhouse gases in the United States 1996. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. 142 p.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. Nonroad engine and vehicle emission study--report. ANR-43. EPA-21A-2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation. 119 p.

U.S. National Research Council. 1983. Changing climate: report of the Carbon Dioxide Assessment Committee. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 496 p.

Wesely, M.L. 1989. Parameterization for surface resistance to gaseous dry deposition in regional-scale numerical models. Atmospheric Environment. 23: 1293-1304.

Winer, A.M.; Arey, J.; Atkinson, R.; Aschmann, S.M.; Long, W.D.; Morrison, C.L.; Olszyk, D.M. 1992. Emission rates of organics from vegetation on California’s Central Valley. Atmospheric Environment. 26A(14): 2647-2659.

Winer, A.M.; Fitz, D.R.; Miller, P.R.; Atkinson, R.; Brown, D.E.; Carter, W.P.; Dodd, M.C.; Johnson, C.W.; Myers, M.A.; Neisess, K.R.; Poe, M.P.; Stephens, E.R. 1983. Investigation of the role of natural hydrocarbons in photochemical smog formation in Californi. Riverside, CA: Statewide Air Pollution Research Center.

Zannetti, P. 1990. Air pollution modeling. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 444 p.

Ziegler, I. 1973. The effect of air‑polluting gases on plant metabolism. In: Environmental quality and safety. Volume 2. New York: Academic Press: 182-208.

Zimmerman, P.R.; Chatfield, R.B.; Fishman, J.; Crutzen, P.J.; Hanst, P.L. 1978. Estimates on the production of CO and H2 from the oxidation of hydrocarbon emissions from vegetation. Geophysical Research Letters. 5(8): 679-682.

Zinke, P.J. 1967. Forest interception studies in the United States. In: Sopper, W.E.; Lull, H.W., eds. Forest hydrology. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press: 137-161.




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